The range of products, services and equipment continue to increase and can become baffling in their enormity and choice. Priority budgeting and monitoring of expenditure becomes crucial in the management of available funds. Still, the cost of good staff accounts for the major proportion of course maintenance costs and it is their management and motivation that will always determine the outcome on the course.

Proper control can only be attained where a sound recording system operates and the essential facts are collated so that they are immediately available for management decisions. Monitoring actual costs against the budget must be the basis of a sound costing system and without one a golf club is doomed to fail.

Creating a critical path programme incorporating securing of materials and specialised equipment should now be a priority. With our changeable weather the ability to be flexible must also remain foremost in our planning.

Water run-off on the pitch
Water run-off is not easily gauged though it is very evident after heavy rainfall with the development of ponded areas on uneven ground. While the preparation of the subsoil prior to topsoil replacement and the on-going level of maintenance all influence the infiltration capacity of sports pitches, there remains a point at which there is run-off of surplus surface water. Once rainfall begins a proportion is withheld within the grass cover. The height of grass growth on sports pitches varies from 25 to 35 mm for football and 50 to 75 mm for rugby. Though no measurements appear to have been recorded, the top growth including the surface litter and thatch retains a considerable volume of water adsorbed to the plant surface and this could be in the region of 2 to 4 mm over the playing area. Micro-irregularities including foot depressions must further retain water that eventually infiltrates into the soil. This volume could also amount to in the region of 4 to 5mm. Finally some water evaporates, some infiltrates into the soil or is contained in surface slit drains. Referred to as abstractions, the sum of these retentions must be complete before run-off commences (Tindall and Kunkel, 1999) and to summarize, there would probably be at least 8 to 12mm falling in the first hour before any significant water reaches lateral drains and is discharged from site.
Slit drains function as a by-pass system in impermeable topsoils. However, positive surface run-off must occur for surplus water to reach the slits even though they are a short distance apart. Without it water is simply retained on the surface. Calculations employing a modified Hooghoudt’s formula can be made to estimate the rate of removing surface water using close spaced slit drains. Expectedly, the rate of removal in slit drains is much less than would be possible in a permeable sand rootzone and capacities of slit drains are generally estimated over 24 hours with the drainage of not much more than 100 mm in a day (Adams and Gibbs, 1994).
For effective run-off from a pitch to be initiated after abstractions are complete, there must naturally be an even grade to specified tolerances and a positive gradient in the playing area. A minimum gradient of 1:70 is needed for satisfactory run-off (McIntyre and Jacobsen, 1998). Adams and Gibbs further maintain a diagonal fall of between 1:67 and 1:100 is advisable. Slit drain systems must remove surplus water from the surface soon after rain has fallen. Installed at 1 m spacing they have proved very effective though the introduction of 260 mm spaced sand-injected mini-slits offer an even greater potential for rapid water removal. In this way the relatively impermeable topsoil can be maintained in a firm and playable condition. Otherwise, isolated muddy areas soon develop. Also vital is the importance of sand dressings to promote surface water flow laterally to slit drains and prevent these drains from being smeared with adjacent clay loam soil dislodged during play (Adams and Gibbs,1994).

Run-off outside the playing area
In many instances water run-off is initiated from higher ground passing down on to the pitches. The long-term performance of cut-off drains or those at the toe of the cut slope depend on the degree of maintenance as silting at the surface is bound to accumulate. The installation of shallow grassed swales or diversion ditches with appropriate gradient is an approved alternative solution (CIRIA, 2000). Controlling surface water movement moving on to the pitches must be the first priority.
The potential for surplus water run-off from sports pitches is of greater consequence after prolonged heavy rain. In a study of the rainfall in southern England the data from the recognized meteorological station at the Wisely Horticultural Research site was chosen. Over 11 years during the wet winter months of October to April, the average number of rain days per month was 16.5. Of these 15.1 days had rainfall totals less than 10 mm in a day and on 8.7 days the daily rainfall measured less than 2 mm. It was estimated earlier that at least the first 8 to 12 mm of rain is retained by abstraction. However, the 1 in 2 year or 1 in 10 year storm in southern England can produce rainfall of 25 to 35 mm in one hour (FEH,1993). With this extreme rainfall in excess of the amount that can be abstracted, surface run-off must occur. Naturally, the immediate surroundings below the playing area now become a vital factor. On graded sports pitches water run-off is generally not significantly more than would occur if the land had not been developed. With the use of diversion ditches, shallow swales, shorter grass cover, a gradient levelled to be suitable for sport and the installation of lateral and slit drains, there is a significant control in surface water flow and a degree of attenuation is achieved.
With run-off into a stream, pond, watercourse or open pasture there is generally no concern. However, where outfall locations are restricted or do not exist in the case of built up areas, provision must be made for the attenuation of this surplus water to prevent peak flow and distribute the surplus water more evenly over the boundary. Furthermore, with a diagonal gradient over a graded area there will be concentrated flow of water run-off after heavy storms. Swales become a vital provision and temporary storage structures incorporating large stone of 150 to 200 mm dimension, large diameter twin wall plastic piping and reinforced plastic cells are used for this purpose. The latter materials have maximum potential for storage and are used extensively under car park areas.

Conclusion
Water run-off is a vital factor in sports pitch design. The control of surplus water flow on to pitches remains the first priority. Acceptable gradient and grade are vital to create surface movement of surplus water on the pitch at times of high intensity rainfall and prevent the development of water-logged areas. Notwithstanding surface drainage provisions in the form of gradient, swales and slit drains, the pitch surroundings will dictate the extent to which attenuation is taken to accommodate water run-off off the pitch at times of heavy rainfall. However, it therefore becomes essential to define the rainfall risk to be catered for in terms of the maximum rainfall intensity allowed for over a nominated return period.

Literature cited
Adams, W.A. and Gibbs, R.J. 1994. Natural turf for sport and amenity. CAB International.p.102-156.
CIRIA, 2000. Sustainable urban drainage systems design manual. Construction Industry Research and
Information. C522. p. 8, 74-77.
McIntyre, K. and Jacobsen, B. 1998. Drainage for sports turf and horticulture. Horticulture Agency
Consulting. p. 110.
FEH, 1993. Flood estimation handbook. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. Wallingford.
Tindall, J.A. and Kunkel, J.R.. 1999. Unsaturated zone hydrology for scientists and engineers. Prentice Hall. p. 367-368.

Reference to www.turfandgrass.com/s_articles/Restricting Drainage.php can be made for a more detailed account of attenuation in a local authority playing field complex.

Sport can be a microcosm of life and develop in our youth much-needed discipline and respect for others – hence in the unsettled world today, maintenance of playing fields warrants far greater consideration.

There is nothing that can be done at this time other than keeping off these pitches until there is sufficient drying out. The only real solution short of installing close spaced drains is to regrade the pitch in the summer to create an adequate gradient to promote surface water run-off. Aerating the pitch by vertidraining does not alleviate the situation especially if the subsoil is of a clay texture.

Now included as standard are extra inputs incorporating better aeration, a revised approach to nutrition and an ever-increasing number of supplements both of organic and inorganic origin. The demands made on golf courses have encouraged commercial production of an array of organic products including organic fertiliser formulations, biotic stimulants, soil conditioners, humic substances, amino acid formulations, microbial and enzyme innoculants and micorrhizal fungi – all seemingly well researched and soundly promoted based on scientific facts. This wide variety of products brings confusion to many a course manager – so which way does he/she go?

Why is there the need?

Situations have simply arisen where there has been an inability or failure to sustain suitable physical and chemical conditions for healthy microbial activity and properly nourished grass growth.

The symptoms are there for all to see in poor moisture penetration, faster meadowgrass encroachment, excessive thatch and organic matter, black layer accumulations, weak top and root growth, greater dependency on fungicides to control disease, reliance on high levels of nutrition and poor drainage performance.

This may appear damming and all the symptoms are not normally present together, but few golf courses do not exhibit any of these shortfalls. Notwithstanding the added stress to grass cover, these conditions are generally due to the absence of a systematic and structured maintenance programme and/or inheriting physical and environmental conditions that severely restrict performance and over which little can be done.

Surely, the first step must be to go back to the basics. A specific audit or factual assessment brings to light the magnitude of the weakness(es): physical analysis of the rootzone, grass cover density, root depth and density, compaction, depth of thatch, organic matter content in the top 100mm, drainage design (surface and underground), water infiltration rate, water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, degree of shade and barriers to air circulation, form and degree of aeration treatments and the basic nutritional status of the rootzone.

The reasons may or may not be readily apparent, but with determination many of the factors can be improved with persistent effort – in many cases without applying additives.

Inorganic and organic

The turfgrass plant is one of the greatest organic matter producers in the top 50mm of the soil. It is primarily dependant on the availability of essential mineral nutrients in the soil solution to ensure uptake by the roots. In the presence of an adequate oxygen supply, a vast beneficial microbial population develops naturally in the organic soil, giving rise to many of the essential nutrients and organic substances now commercially available.

Tom Bruulsema of the Potash and Phosphate Institute recently stated, “Commercial fertilisers supply nutrients in the inorganic form – the form that plants actually absorb – to boost the growth of plants. Plants are the only original producers of organic materials that structure and cover the soil and feed its organisms. So inorganic nutrients are vital to the ecology and health of the soil ecosystem.”

It is clear that the mineral nutrient supply from organic matter in the soil goes a long way to provide plant nutrition. Any deficiencies existing in the soil or arising from the removal of grass cuttings must be supplemented in inorganic form either in the form of commercial fertilisers or selective organic products containing these minerals.

Every golf course is different. In the region of 70 hectares there is a wide range of circumstances occurring, all of which exhibit factors that can have a significant affect on maintenance requirements. Only a fool does not listen to a genuine sales promotion – or to anyone offering comment. Acceptance of what is offered is another matter – but some remedies are sure to give promise of improvement. A golf course offers ample scope to try out a treatment or remedy that shows interest but including a control area in the same location is vital if a meaningful comparison is to be made of the benefit.

Now attracting more attention are microbial innoculants, micorrhizal fungi, amino and fulvic acids, zeolite and compost tea. One or other are ascribed to improve the microbial performance in the rootzone, increase root growth, restrict mineral leaching from the rootzone, reduce the occurrence of disease and make better availability of existing minerals in the soil so reducing fertiliser requirements. Yet so often treatments are judged without any consideration of the physical, chemical and weather conditions at the time. Unreliable judgement is certain to follow when a treatment is not properly evaluated relative to the prevailing conditions and a control treatment.

Balanced nutrition

Though standard NPK formulations are generally used many managers are unaware of the cumulative application of relevant minerals and see little need for periodic soil analysis. There are established ‘sufficiency levels’ of dependable mineral nutrients in the soil below which plants will respond to added fertilisers and above which they will not respond. This basis in making recommendations is generally accepted but an alternative approach aimed at creating ideal ratios between calcium, potassium and magnesium content in the soil solution is receiving wider acclaim. These approaches can lead to significantly different recommendations which again becomes confusing to many.

With the overall objective to reduce the amounts of mineral nutrients applied – especially nitrogen – and the use of chemicals, trials with appropriate organic additives have their worth particularly if circumstances warrant their use. However the first move surely must be to reinstate optimum physical conditions and ensure a balanced nutrition supply of the main mineral elements is available to the plant amidst a thriving microbial population and within a well-drained environment.

Avoiding the end of season renovation programme can lead to unsafe playing conditions in the following season. Uneven surfaces become a hazard and if left untreated remaining depressions in the playing areas will collect water after rain forming puddles that will become muddy and deteriorate in the winter months. They will become slippery and unsafe.

Apart from the need for safety, poor playing conditions hardly attract youngsters to play.

Ideally, there should be water supply in the soil to the depth of the grass roots. Water below that is of no immediate benefit to the grass plant. It becomes logical too to expect that a sprinkler operation programme must enable water to penetrate to at least 40mm into the soil profile to avoid being quickly lost by the power of the sun. Applying enough water to barely wet the surface makes it highly probable that this water will be lost in a day by evapotranspiration. Furthermore, water in the soil below the surface is lost more slowly and becomes more effective – this all means that ensuring penetration into the soil makes it unnecessary to water every day and irrigation cycles can be comfortably spaced out to at least two or three day intervals.